A Scientific Approach to Reading Instruction

By: Barbara Foorman, Jack Fletcher, and David Francis (1997)

Direct, systematic instruction about the alphabetic code is not routinely provided in kindergarten and first grade, in spite of the fact that at the moment this might be our most powerful weapon in the fight against illiteracy.

Important intervention findings:
Direct instruction in decoding skills emphasizing the alphabetic code results in more favorable outcomes than does a context-emphasis or embedded approach. (all NICHD studies)

The type of direct instruction alphabetic program is less important than the intensity, duration, and teacher training/monitoring so long as the program is structured and explicit. (Florida State University)

Over 90% of children reading below the 15th percentile at the beginning of first grade read at or above grade level by the end of the first grade with appropriate intervention. (SUNYAlbany)

Fifteen minutes of instruction in the alphabetic code as part of a standard kindergarten curriculum led to significant gains in phonological analysis skills relative to children in the same curriculum who did not receive this training. Facilitation of reading ability occurred only if the program was continued into subsequent school years. (University of Houston)

Comparisons of direct instruction phonics, embedded phonics, and two context- emphasis approaches in socially disadvantaged (Title 1) first and second graders showed that only the direct instruction approach was associated with average levels of reading proficiency after one school year of intervention. Curriculum effects outweighed effects of tutoring and variability across teachers. In fact, many children in the context- based approaches showed no gains. (University of Houston)

Decoding and phonological analysis skills are necessary but not sufficient skills for successful reading. They are not the (w)hole story. Once you can decode, you must be able to decode rapidly words that represent the orthographic elements of English (e.g., morphological units and writing conventions). Comprehension processes are separable and must also be taught. Print awareness, immersion in literacy, and reading to children also account for variability in reading outcomes, but they are less robust predictors of long term outcomes relative to single word skills.

Necessary & sufficient conditions for learning to read
Phonological Awareness: Sensitivity to the sound structure (rather than the meaning) of speech

Phonemic Awareness: The ability to deal explicitly and segmentally with sound units smaller than the syllable (i.e., phonemes)

Alphabetic Principle: The insight that written words are composed of letters of the alphabet that are intentionally and conventionally related to segments of spoken words

Orthographic Awareness: Sensitivity to the structure of the writing system (spelling patterns, orthographic rules, inflectional and derivational morphology, etymology)

Comprehensive Monitoring Strategies: Strategies that help students attend to and remember what they read

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